Stigma and the labelling process have been conceptualised and debated for decades (Link & Phelan, 1999). Stigma was first examined by Goffman (1963), whose work was valuable in explaining and drawing attention to stigmatisation and individual strategies of stigma management. This thesis moves beyond this individualising definition to consider stigma as a mechanism of power, examining the role of stigmatisers in conveying and (re)producing labels and stereotypes (Link & Phelan, 2001) through exploring the potential influences of institutional structures on stigmatisation. Through an examination of the lived realities of young people, this thesis seeks to understand the role and reproduction of stigma in their lives, tied to the determining contexts of race, gender and class, and created within constructs of power. This study provides an empirical example of stigma power in the lives of young people living in two Manchester neighbourhoods. Working with 28 young people aged 16-19 in two stigmatised areas of Manchester, this research was grounded in ethnographic principles, serving as a foundation for a participatory-informed research design developed to discover, interpret, and apply knowledge. In addition to conducting over 300 hours of participant observation of the young people’s lives, the research involved the use of participatory-informed, creative methods. In consultation with young people, this was facilitated through various creative approaches, including geographical mapping, creative writing, flashcards, and a blog. Based upon its findings, this thesis will argue that the lives of young people are layered through pre-existing faultlines that can be understood and determined within the structures of society. By revealing the experiences of young people through the institutional structures of public and media narratives, and police and educational encounters, this thesis illustrates how institutionalised narratives may contribute to the (re)production of stigmatised identities. By understanding how the lives of young people can become structured within the determining contexts of society, directly from the individuals to whom this applies, this thesis offers the potential to explore how the lives of some young people are (re)produced through cycles of stigma.

Abstract available in hard copy

There is great interest in traditional or folk medicines in order to help with the discovery and development of potentially new pharmaceutics which have clinical benefits to man. Many of these traditional medicines are derived from medicinal plants which have been shown to contain a multitude of chemicals that have potent natural antioxidant properties. The chemical composition (metabolites), characterisation, antioxidant properties and cytoprotective effects to oxidative stress of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (ZZ) root-bark extract obtained from different seasonal conditions, namely: winter, spring, summer and autumn bought from an African store and during one annual collection, were investigated in this thesis. ZZ root-bark was prepared in in two solvents (ethanol and water) and three methods of extraction (Aq decoction and maceration as well as ethanolic maceration). The extracts were investigated using different methods such as moisture content analysis, percentage insoluble fraction, spectrocolorimetric measurements, ash content analysis, analysis of carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen analysis, gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), ultra-violet-visible spectroscopy (UV-VIS), Fourier-transform infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR), qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analyses. Its antioxidative effects was investigated by assessing the plant extract’s ability to scavenge or react with a range of different free radicals such as: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), hydroxyl radical (●OH), singlet oxygen radical (1O2), nitric oxide radical (NO●), 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS●+), metal ion, ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) and reducing power assay. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and H2O2 were used to induce oxidative stress in human leukemic cells (U937 and HL60), and the ZZ extract was used to determine any potential cytoprotective effects to these oxidative insults. The result presented in this thesis showed that the moisture content of ZZ root-bark extract for winter, summer, spring and autumn was between 6.75 – 8.07% and this is within the acceptable moisture content percentage (5 – 8%). A statistically significant difference of *P<0.5 (winter vs spring), ***P<0.001 (spring vs summer) and ****P<0.0001 (winter vs summer) was observed among these seasons. The percentage insoluble fraction of this extract, in both solvents, was about 90% for these seasonal conditions with no statistically significant difference among them. The percentage ash content was between 6.9 – 8.3% for these harvest seasons, with statistically significant difference of *P<0.5 (winter vs spring) and **P<0.01 (winter vs summer), and this is within the acceptable range (5 – 40%). ICP-MS analysis of this extract confirms the presence of calcium, manganese, gallium, strontium, barium, lanthanum and cerium for all extracts from different seasons. GC-MS analysis of ZZ confirms the presence of many metabolites such as alkyl amide, lipids, coumarin, alkaloids, phenolics and triterpenes from all seasons. UV-VIS spectroscopy analysis further confirmed the presence of flavonoids for all seasons. Physico-chemical quantification analyses also confirmed the presence of many of these constituents in the extract. Percentage CHNS-O was between 43 – 52 % for carbon, 0 – 0.21 % for nitrogen, 4 – 12 % for hydrogen and 35 – 41 % for oxygen. However, sulphur was not present in all seasons. The ZZ extract also showed a great ability to scavenge free radicals such as DPPH● (IC50 = 30 μg/ml), ●OH (IC50 = 0.08 mg/ml), H2O2 (IC50 = 0.08 mg/ml), NO● (IC50 = 0.20 mg/ml) 1O2 (IC50 = 0.16 mg/ml) ABTS●+ (IC50 = 0.23 mg/ml) and metal ion (IC50 = 0.11 mg/ml) by accepting hydrogen or electron but showed a weak FRAP and reducing power ability. Finally, the extract showed it had cytoprotective effect against lipopolysaccharide and hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress leading to cell death in U937 and HL60 leukemic cells. A more detailed characterisation showed that the ZZ extract was able to statistically protect against oxidative stress-induced cell death caused by either apoptosis or necrosis. In conclusion, ZZ extract possesses many phytochemical compounds, many of which have antioxidants properties regardless of their harvest seasons. Findings from this thesis confirmed the potential health benefits of ZZ root-bark and could be valuable for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries in using it to reveal new sources of natural antioxidant for therapeutic drugs.

We are all likely to experience bereavement during our lifetime. The impact of the loss is determined by many variables including age, intensity of relationship to the deceased, and social support systems. Traumatic sudden bereavement features additional causative factors of unfinished business, being unable to say goodbye, and sense of an incomplete life. The trauma of repeated sudden unexpected bereavement results in a potentially long-lasting disintegration of self that may lead to prolonged or complicated grief. The purpose of this qualitative study is to contribute to understanding of the lived experience of sudden bereavement and cumulative grief, what is meant by recovery and how it might manifest. It explores the impact of multiple losses, how sudden death can leave a traumatic imprint, and how each may be mitigated through life choices. This study aims to inform professionals and the bereaved in their understanding of sudden, unexpected bereavement in the context of widespread Covid-19 grief. An autoethnographical approach was used to explore the researcher’s lived experience as a young adult of sudden bereavement of three primary family members within a relatively short time span of seven years. All were traumatic losses, with one bereavement especially so. The resulting cumulative grief is investigated along with the researcher’s perception of progress and relapse in terms of recovery and sense-making of historical personal grief. The concept of posttraumatic recovery is explored in the context of the researcher’s personal experiences and linked to current sociological collective encounters with unprepared for, sudden death experienced by many during the Covid-19 pandemic. Data collection and analysis is a constantly changing interplay of interpretation and discovery. Continuous reflection of memories and emotional responses to the autoethnographic and personal journal writing, poems, and image-making provided data through which unexpected themes emerged, expanded, and evolved, leading to an increased level of sense-making that had been previously absent. This thesis adds to the limited extant literature on sibling and parental bereavement experienced by young adults aged 19-26 years, particularly that of multiple, sudden bereavement and cumulative grief. An individual’s experience of grief is profoundly personal and there is no definitive period of recovery that can be applied. The researcher’s isolating journey of historic traumatic bereavements is viewed within a culture where traumatic loss became an everyday occurrence during the Covid-19 pandemic. This proliferation changed the rhetoric from an individual to a shared experience, permitting the previously silenced to become heard, assisting readers to navigate their own experiences of grief, loss, and recovery through the lens of a more grief-informed society, and to inform professionals and affected others in their understanding and support of sudden ‘unprepared for’ bereavement during Covid related deaths and beyond.

The private and charitable sectors have become firmly embedded within the criminal justice system, where they are increasingly involved and accountable for delivering public services (Ismail, 2021). The distinctiveness of the charitable sector enables it to provide services and meet needs in ways that the statutory and private sectors cannot (Clinks, 2013; Corcoran & Hucklesby, 2013; Dayson et al., 2022). Consecutive governments have acknowledged the charitable sector’s essential role in criminal justice and recognised its unique ability to meet the complex needs of individuals who have contact with the criminal justice system. However, legislation, government policy and actions have caused greater reliance on the charitable sector. Utilising Foucault’s (1991) governmentality perspective, neoliberal ideologies have disadvantaged charitable sector organisations. Government actions based on privatisation, monetarism, and austerity have hindered the charitable sector’s capacity to deliver public services (Heydar-Cardwell, 2012; Marmot et al., 2020). The Transforming Rehabilitation programme implemented in practice in 2013 questions the government’s support for the charitable sector and its involvement in public service provision (Dacombe & Morrow, 2016). Legislation and government policy have had equally damaging effects on charitable sector service users. Criminality and mental health disorders are associated with highly derogatory labels. Stigma theories outline the grave consequences caused by stigmatisation. Individuals attached to these labels are stigmatised, socially excluded, and disproportionately impacted by multiple laws and policies (Goffman, 1963; Link et al., 1989; Pinel, 1999; Scheff, 1966; Tremlin & Beazley, 2022). Link and Phelan’s (2001, 2004) and Corrigan et al.’s (2004) notion of structural power shows how stigmatising labels justify punitive policy and action. During the 1970s, there was a growing political movement of conservative ideologies where liberal approaches were deemed ‘soft on crime’ and replaced with ideas around control and punitive punishments (Hardisty, 2004; Loader & Sparks, 2016; Spicker, 2022). The government’s political decision to enforce neoliberal policies and inflict austerity has caused extensive harm to the most vulnerable, stigmatised groups in society (Lavalette, 2017; Marazziti, 2021; Tremlin & Beazley, 2022). The social injustices and government failings to minority and vulnerable groups within society are a vital area for analysis and social change. This research aimed to critically explore the distinctiveness of the charitable sector and the impact and effectiveness of legislation, government policy and actions on the charitable sector. More specifically and uniquely, the study explored the distinctiveness, impact, and effectiveness of charitable sector practitioners’ perspectives. This research sought to provide a platform for the voices of charitable sector practitioners. The research’s timing adds to the study’s originality and its contribution to knowledge. The research critically explored practitioners’ perspectives post-implementation of the Transforming Rehabilitation programme. Data was collected in 2016, three years after implementation, to explore perspectives of policy in practice in detail. This study sought to provide a profound understanding of how the charitable sector continues to provide support services through a time of political turmoil and substantial probationary reform from the perspectives of those working in the sector. The researcher conducted 24 qualitative, semi-structured interviews with practitioners from 8 different charitable sector organisations. All practitioners, either in paid or voluntary roles, delivered mental health and well-being support services to offenders or individuals whom the criminal justice system deems at risk of offending. Thematic analysis was then conducted to interpret the data and identify emergent codes and themes. The findings revolved around two core themes: the distinctiveness of the charitable sector and the detrimental impact of the Transforming Rehabilitation reforms on charitable sector organisations. Charitable sector practitioners expressed their invaluable and distinct role in meeting the needs of offenders and individuals whom the criminal justice system deem at risk of offending. Charitable sector distinctiveness lies in providing innovative, individualised, and holistic services that meet its service users’ multiple, complex needs. Yet, legislation and public policy, along with the government’s principal priority to cut public expenditure, have caused numerous complexities for charitable sector organisations. The perspectives shared about Transforming Rehabilitation are based on concerns and anxieties over the future of their services and how they will navigate through the continuing state of flux. Practitioners communicated how they feel exploited and believe the government has prioritised financial savings and perceived political support over meeting offender needs and protecting the charitable sector’s role. The thesis uses a combination of distinctive theories and first-hand accounts of delivering services in the charitable sector to deepen understanding of the complexities of providing public services in the charitable sector. Specifically, and uniquely, perspectives gathered at a time of radical change in the probation service provide a foundation for how the charitable sector has adapted during the early stages of the Transforming Rehabilitation initiative.

On the 23rd of March 2020, the citizens of the United Kingdom were instructed by the government to stay at home, to save lives and protect the NHS to manage the impact of Coronavirus. This thesis aims to contribute to understanding the personal impact of this instruction, particularly on those most vulnerable to the virus and instructed to shield themselves by avoiding face-to-face contact. A Narrative Inquiry methodology was used to understand the experience of six participants who had been living alone for twelve months. The government instructed each participant to shield in their home to avoid human contact due to the risk of serious harm or death that may result from catching COVID due to existing health conditions. Their stories were captured during a sixty-minute unstructured interview held over video or telephone. Participants' stories fell into three broad categories: stories about the impact of staying at home, their interactions with other people, and stories concerning broader social issues. Fear was central to many of the participants’ stories due to uncertainties at the time; the fear of how they will survive being alone, fear of others when they come close, and fear of an untrustworthy government and the impact of evolving social injustices. Each participant demonstrated great fear during this period, with the unquestioned narrative that they would die if they caught the virus. To manage this fear, participants used different strategies, including following the rules very strictly, keeping themselves distracted by filling their days, showing concern and helping less fortunate people, and associating themselves with a strong social network. Most significantly, all participants followed the rules as they wanted to protect their own lives, which is contrary to the dominant discourse that rules should be followed to save others’ lives and the NHS. This thesis tells the story of six individuals as they endured a terrifying period of uncertainty and demonstrated that when experiencing extreme circumstances, how adaptable and resourceful they were. Opening the door to six individuals and asking them what it was like for them illuminates how personality, history and circumstances impacted the experience of being faced with the possibility of death. Furthermore, this research provides an opportunity to get close to and empathise with six individuals that had a more extreme experience of the lockdown than most due to their existing health conditions, opening up alternative meanings to the pandemic. Although the pandemic was a period that caused great terror, it was also a time for these six individuals to pause and reflect on personal and social values, to notice what they were grateful for, and a desire to make things better for those who are less fortunate.

Adult Babies (ABs) are predominantly categorised as paraphiliacs, kink practitioners or fetishists. However, whilst this may be true for some within the Adult Baby/Diaper Lover (ABDL) community, this stance does not consider a subgroup of the community whose practice is devoid of sexual or adult gratifications. A Constructivist Grounded Theory (CGT) methodology was employed to capture the lived experience, historic and current, of a sample of the UK ABDL community by answering the question “what are the aetiology, drives and experiences of the non-sexual adult baby?” 10 participants were interviewed and the data analysed by single coder analysis. The key themes identified within the data were: a non-sexual process; a history of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs); early onset; the juvenile process is not limited to an infantile process; the juvenile configuration is not bound to gender; the process is experienced as intractable (until apposite therapeutic intervention); the juvenile process is inherently about affect management. From these findings a theoretical framework, Trauma Induced Age Regressive Process (TIARP), was developed. It is a finding of this study that, for this specific subgroup of the UK ABDL community, the aetiology of said behaviours lies in developmental trauma, itself a distinguishing feature demarcating this specific subgroup from the broader ABDL community. The data from this sample confirmed the presence of a discrete subgroup of the UK ABDL community whose experiences and drives are unconnected to paraphilic infantilism or fetishistic and kink practices. Additionally, as this thesis will evidence, this subgroup is vulnerable in the wider social milieu, their practice being erroneously conflated with paedophilic intent and being subject to sexual predation. The TIARP framework is introduced and discussed, as too are the implications and limitations of this research.

Over the last few decades, there has been exponential growth in the demographics of diversity within British society. As a result, Britain is home to many ethnic groups, including at least half a million Middle Eastern individuals. However, when it comes to counselling and psychotherapy with Middle Eastern clients, there appears to be a lack of counselling and psychotherapy literature around the topic in Britain. Therefore, it is becoming more pertinent than ever for the mainstream profession of counselling and psychotherapy to understand the needs of the Middle Eastern population in Britain. This research explored the helpful and hindering aspects of counselling and psychotherapy with Middle Eastern clients living in England. The research aimed to understand the attitude of Middle Eastern individuals towards accessing counselling and psychotherapy support; to explore the helpful and hindering aspects of counselling and psychotherapy for Middle Eastern clients; and to identify the specific ways of relating and attributes utilised by counsellors and psychotherapists in delivering therapy for Middle Eastern clients in England. This research utilised a mixed-methods approach consisting of three distinctive phases. Phase One involved quantitively surveying (online) Middle Eastern individuals in England. This was conducted by employing the Short-Form (Fischer & Farina, 1995) of the Attitude Towards Seeking Professional Psychological Help Scale (Fischer & Turner, 1970). 66 survey responses were analysed using the Online Bristol Survey. The purpose of Phase One was to understand the attitude of Middle Eastern individuals towards accessing counselling and psychotherapy support in England, as well as recruiting participants for Phase Two. The survey identified four contactable interviewees who had a lived experience of engaging with counselling as clients. The four interviewees participated in qualitative semi-structured interviews conducted in Phase Two to explore the helpful and hindering aspects of counselling with Middle Eastern clients in England from the client's perspectives. Phase Three focused on counsellors' and psychotherapists' perspectives who have engaged therapeutically with Middle Eastern clients in England. This involved qualitative, semi-structured interviews with six counsellors and psychotherapists who had self-selected to partake. Data gained from the interviews for Phase Two and Phase Three were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The main findings identified a sense of reluctance towards accessing counselling and psychotherapy support; a cultural stigma attached to mental health and counselling; cultural identity factors (i.e., language, religion and gender) that influenced the therapeutic process and relationship; challenges and helpful therapeutic practices; and the importance of cultural sensitivity when working with Middle Eastern clients. The findings of this research are transferable and significant in delivering culturally competent and congruent counselling and psychotherapy support to Middle Eastern clients in England. The findings also have implications for Middle Eastern clients, practitioners, trainers, supervisors, professional bodies, practice, therapy services and policies which need to be considered. Finally, the research findings generated knowledge to enhance our understanding of working effectively with Middle Eastern clients and delivered a sense of justice within the British counselling and psychotherapy literature in England. The research proposes recommendations for future research to consider.

Whilst research increasingly focuses on autism in girls, there is a dearth of literature around the experience of parenting an autistic daughter in the UK, with the few studies that do focusing only on mothers. The data was gathered through in-depth semi-structured interviews that explored the lived experience of parenting an autistic daughter for six mothers and two fathers, from their first concerns, through to the diagnosis, with life in-between and beyond. Their daughters were aged between eleven and seventeen at diagnosis and were diagnosed within the UK. IPA was used to analyse the data. Five superordinate themes were identified: Journey to diagnosis; Negotiating systems; Psychological impact; Living with an autistic daughter; and Reflections. The research demonstrates that the parents of autistic daughters find themselves seeking professional advice and support for a pervasive condition that, whilst better known for its familiar male presentation, appears invisible in its female form to all but those in their close family. The impact of the ensuing struggle to have their concerns believed and to obtain her autism diagnosis often has profoundly negative consequences, leaving families in crisis, chaos in daily life, and parents’ mental and physical health compromised. The subsequent delay in diagnosis means that their daughter remains unsupported in her education and social life, with the adverse ramifications of this reverberating throughout her family. The findings of this study have implications for parents, professionals, and the field of research in terms of the need for a better recognition and understanding of female autism, an apposite educational setting, and a holistic approach to family support.

Typified predominantly as ‘agencies of disempowerment and deprivation’, traditional prisons represent the antithesis of a rehabilitative setting (De Viggiani, 2007a, p.115). As such, the aim of this qualitative study was to explore the physical, psychological, and social implications of HMP Berwyn’s rehabilitative model (The Berwyn Way) from the perspective of prison residents and operational staff. As a single-site project, Berwyn was of particular interest because of its recent introduction to the UK prison estate. Opening in February 2017, Berwyn, a North Walian establishment, housing up to 2106 adult males, opened with an ambitious rehabilitative agenda which promised to normalise the prison setting by focusing on rehabilitative cultures and values, improved spatial design, therapeutic staff-resident relationships and a person-first lexicon which aimed to replace traditional prison terminology with inclusive alternatives. These are but some of the approaches listed under the ‘Berwyn Way’, and in addressing the many others, this thesis discusses the wider implications of Berwyn’s approach, and does so, with accounts from a sample of 20 prison residents and 20 operational staff, using semi-structured interviews. To capture further nuances, triangulation was utilised and included ethnographic observations and detailed fieldnotes. Thematic analysis of the triangulated dataset generated four themes: The Berwyn Way; Lifting the liminal veil between the outside and inside; Managing behaviour, and finally, Actions speak louder than words: rethinking prison language, relationships and interactions. Findings from the study did not support the expectation that Berwyn’s rehabilitative model would be broadly accepted, and instead there was some resistance to rehabilitative change, both from a resident and staff perspective. From a rehabilitative standpoint, there were however areas of notable best-practice, with certain operational areas encapsulating the essence of Berwyn’s rehabilitative model with consistent professional practice, acceptance to Berwyn’s overarching vision and a willingness to challenge the orthodox narrative of punitive imprisonment. The thesis concludes with observations surrounding the implications of the study for rehabilitative penal practice within prisons in England and Wales, and recommendations for future research.