Interest in using the class Scyphozoa (‘jellyfish’) as bioresources is on the rise, though it remains unclear how the stability of jellyfish populations will be affected by increased fishery demands. While aquaculture is seldom considered as an option for obtaining jellyfish biomass, it may be necessary to relieve natural populations from fishing pressures and conserve ecosystem services supported by jellyfish. It is therefore important to assess whether aquaculture could provide sought-after jellyfish bioresources. Conversely, there is evidence to suggest that jellyfish abundances might be increasing globally, and it has been suggested that jellyfish fisheries may help regulate disaster events associated with jellyfish population ‘blooms’. Understanding how environmental variables regulate jellyfish physiology is essential to better predict how their population dynamics may change in the future. This type of assessment could help determine whether aquaculture or fisheries will represent a more sustainable method of jellyfish exploitation in the future. This thesis investigated key environmental drivers of jellyfish development throughout multiple life stages to improve aquaculture techniques and infer how different natural environmental conditions might influence jellyfish physiology. Chapter 2 used a meta-analytical approach to examine the types of research that have been conducted on every scyphozoan genus between 2001-2021. This chapter identified understudied areas of jellyfish biology that could constrain our capacity to harvest jellyfish biomass sustainably. Notably, it was highlighted that relatively few studies have focused on the general biology of jellyfish early life stages or the ecophysiology of the medusa life stage. Chapter 3 assessed the influence of seawater media on Aurelia aurita (moon jellyfish) planula larva and polyp development. Cultivating A. aurita planulae and polyps in artificial seawater reduced the likelihood of successful metamorphosis compared to when natural seawater was used, but husbandry methods that can be used to overcome this issue and cultivate jellyfish with limited access to natural seawater were described. Chapter 4 considered how temperature and feeding regimes influence the growth and asexual reproduction of A. aurita polyps. Temperature and food availability had different effects on somatic growth and populations cultivated in warmer conditions produced more ephyrae (juvenile jellyfish) following a controlled winter simulation. Chapter 5 tested the influence of similar temperature regimes on subsequent ephyra growth and development into adult medusae. The fastest somatic growth rates were observed at 15 °C and sexual reproduction was impaired at temperatures > 18 °C. Chapter 6 extracted and characterised collagenous solutions derived from medusa samples cultivated within a laboratory setting. The results suggested that the thermal stability of jellyfish collagen is regulated by specific environmental factors and could be optimised through different cultivation protocols. In Chapter 7, ephyrae from the tropical genus Cassiopea (upside-down jellyfish) were cultivated at different temperatures and a range of developmental, morphological, and behavioural metrics were investigated. Somatic growth and morphological development were impaired at temperatures > 25 °C, indicating the stability of Cassiopea sp. fisheries within tropical regions could decline as ocean temperatures rise. Morphometric results from this chapter also suggested that Cassiopea sp. display morphological plasticity in response to temperature. Collectively, these chapters provide insights into how certain environmental conditions can regulate jellyfish biomass production and growth, how jellyfish-derived collagen can be obtained ex situ, and where further research is needed to ensure a sustainable growth of jellyfish exploitation.

This thesis studied the fabrication of piezoelectric transducers and the engineering structural design in pursuit of enhanced piezoelectric behaviour. The research investigated sandwich-based piezoelectric energy harvesters, and a macro fibre composite (MFC) patch as a piezoelectric element. Finite element models of the sandwich structures were established in COMSOL Multiphysics, where the natural frequencies of the first bending modes and the open-circuit voltage at the natural frequencies were predicted. The difference between the numerical voltage prediction and the experimental measurement is within 10%, so that the experimental measurement is able to validate the numerical calculation. It was found that the sandwich with optimised core cellular design, namely the re-entrant honeycomb, could harvest 24.4 μW under base excitation of 1 g p-p magnitude at a first bending mode resonant frequency. Further optimisation on the re-entrant honeycomb core was conducted by introducing functional grading, in pursuit of further piezoelectric energy harvesting performance. Grading was conducted on the re-entrant honeycomb, by varying the cellular wall angle and the optimum grading scheme was found to have a linear variation from 60 ° at the bottom surface, to 45 ° at the top surface. Similarly, the finite element models of sandwiches with functional graded design were established, and it has been found that the experimental result can validate the numerical prediction. It also consisted of a spin-coated P(VDF-TrFE) transducer and sandwich with the optimised graded cellular core producing a maximum 158.7 nW at 2g p-p acceleration. Moreover, a screen-printing system was built, with fully functioning screen exposure, washing, and substrate clamping units. A screen of 15-200 mesh was selected for P(VDF-TrFE) due to a high paste deposition efficiency. The screen-printed piezoelectric devices were assessed for the structural health monitoring of carbon fibre, and glass fibre reinforced composite panels. When the printed piezoelectric transducers were used as both an emitter and a sensor, the dynamic modes could not be captured by the frequency response function spectrum. When a printed transducer was replaced by a macro fibre composite, the modal information was obtained, and the variation of critical modal peaks was observed after the composite panels were impacted at 5 J for once and twice. It was also observed that the printed transducer behaved more effectively as a sensor than an emitter. These observations demonstrated the feasibility of printed piezoelectric transducers for structural health monitoring applications. To enhance the piezoelectric property of the printed transducer, BaTiO3 particles were added into the P(VDF-TrFE) matrix. The optimised concentration for the best piezoelectric coefficient was found to be 5 wt% BaTiO3 in relation to P(VDF-TrFE) polymers. At the optimised concentration, the screen-printed piezoelectric generator exhibited a piezoelectric constant d33 of -33.90 pC/N, dielectric constant of 17.05, and the Young’s modulus of 1.35 GPa. The measurement was used as the material properties of the piezoelectric elements in the finite element models of the smart sandwich energy harvesters. The numerically calculated natural frequencies of the first bending modes and the open-circuit voltage were well validated by the experimental result. Combining the optimised screen-printed piezoelectric harvester with carbon and glass fibre reinforced composite panels, resulted in a measured maximum power output between 2.9 μW and 3.8 μW. This power was generated under 1 g peak-peak (p-p) acceleration at the first bending mode resonant frequency. To demonstrate real applications of harvested energy, a commercial accelerometer was powered by a smart composite energy harvester. The smart composite energy harvester was excited at 5 g peak-peak acceleration and connected to a 100 μF capacitor via a full-bridge rectifier. The energy stored in the capacitor was used to power the accelerometer, and successful measurement was demonstrated. A further development included a screen-printed nonlinear harvester for energy harvesting, where the printed generator was combined with a buckled Duffing nonlinear oscillator with clamp-clamp configuration. The buckled beams were prototyped into rectangular and cellular configurations. The rectangular and cellular configurations provided a maximum power of 0.66 and 0.93 μW, respectively.

Staphylococcus epidermidis is an opportunistic bacteria which forms pathogenic biofilms in medical implant environment. Biofilm formation is a complex multistage process within which the initial stages of adhesion are deemed the most critical target for preventing biofilms. This research involves the characterisation of S. epidermidis (ATCC35984 and NCTC13360) by using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) on model substrates including glass, muscovite mica, silicon (111) wafer, sputter-coated titanium and sputter-coated silver, focusing on the effect of chemical properties of the material on adhesion by using surfaces with minimal roughness. AFM was used to image the surface, from which bacterial coverage can be estimated. AFM was also used to probe adhesion forces and local mechanical properties of all samples through the use of force-distance curves. AFM images were also used to estimate the bacterial coverage. XPS was used to investigate the surface chemistry from the layer thicknesses, the percentage coverage and potential composition of the overlayer. The combination of these techniques allow the relationships between the surface chemistry of the substrate and the bacteria to be correlated with changes in coverage and properties of bacterial films. Data on incubated bacterial samples were compared with those from the reference substrates, both before and after autoclaving, and from samples prepared using protein rich growth medium (tryptic soy broth) in the absence of bacteria as well as a pure bacterial pellet in an assumed non-biofilm forming state. The research indicates the potential differences between biofilm and non-biofilm former strains, with both strains being covered by an organic layer with little influence of the growth media used to incubate the bacteria. This research also shows how XPS and AFM data can be combined and applied to bacterial adhesion.