Psychology
Staff within the School of Psychology have a wide range of specialist expertise and knowledge. We work together in a number of research groups through which we support the work of both staff and students in the Department. In addition, we are able to offer a range of services on a consultancy basis. If you would like to discuss collaboration or consultancy with us, please do get in touch. Our research groups play an important role in the Department of Psychology. The groups meet regularly throughout the academic year and provide opportunities for members to discuss their current research, ideas for new research projects, or simply to discuss an interesting journal article or conference presentation they've seen. They also provide an important support structure for junior researchers, including MPhil and PhD students.
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A Rapid Review of the Evidence for Online Interventions for Bereavement SupportBackground: Grieving is a natural process, and many people adjust with support from family and friends. Around 40% of people would benefit from additional input. Online bereavement support interventions may increase access to support. Evidence regarding their acceptability and effectiveness is emerging but needs to be synthesised. Aim: To synthesise evidence on the feasibility, acceptability, effectiveness, impacts and implementation of online interventions to improve wellbeing, coping and quality of life after bereavement. Design: A rapid review of evidence regarding online bereavement support. We appraised study quality using AMSTAR 2 and the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Data sources: English language articles published 1 January 2010 to 4 January 2024, using Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase and APA PsycINFO. Eligible articles examined formal and informal online interventions to improve bereavement outcomes. Results: We screened 2050 articles by title and abstract. Four systematic reviews and 35 individual studies were included. Online bereavement support was feasible, acceptable and effective in reducing grief intensity, stress-related outcomes and depression. Where reported, participant retention was typically >70%. Positive impacts included: access to a supportive community at any time, reduced isolation; opportunities to process feelings; normalisation of loss responses; access to coping advice and opportunities for meaning-making and remembrance. Negative impacts included upset due to insensitive comments from others via unmoderated online forums. Conclusion: Online interventions can widen access to acceptable, effective bereavement support and improve outcomes for bereaved people. National policies and clinical guidelines relating to bereavement support need to be updated to take account of online formats.
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Author Correction: UK Reproducibility Network Open and Transparent Research Practices Survey DatasetIn the version of the article initially published, in the “Sampling” column of Table 1, the University of Sheffield was originally listed as “Opportunity” but has now been amended to “Stratified”. Additionally, in the fourth paragraph of the “Background & Summary” section, the text “In 2022, members of the UKRN published the results of the Brief Open Research Survey (BORS), which measured awareness and uptake of Open Research practices across the UKRN Local Networks. The survey found that respondents were most aware of Open Access publications, preprints and open data, and the most commonly reported means to foster further uptake of Open Research practices were incentives, dedicated funding, and recognition in promotion and recruitment criteria” has been added, alongside a new ref. 15: Norris, E. et al. Development of the brief open research survey (bors) to measure awareness and uptake of open research practices, https://doi.org/10.31222/osf.io/w48yh (2022). These corrections have been made to the HTML and PDF versions of the article.
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Exploring Adult Safeguarding Data in England: Mapping Vulnerability and Understanding TrendsThis paper explored and mapped Safeguarding Adults England data for 2022-2023 by local authority to enable identification and exploration of any differences between local authorities. Methodology: Colour symbology maps were produced to enable visual analysis of safeguarding concerns and section 42 enquiries per 100,000 of the population, as well as the conversion of safeguarding concerns to section 42 enquiries. Statistical hotspots were calculated using the Getis-Ord Gi* for section 42 enquiries per 100,000 of the population across age classes. Findings: Findings show regional differences across England in terms of the number of documented concerns, section 42’s and conversion rates. Some regions had statistically significant higher or lower section 42 enquiries per 100,000 of population across age classes compared to their bordering geographical neighbours. Reflections on these findings lead to a series of recommendations. Originality: This paper addresses a need to explore further and analyse adult safeguarding data to inform practice, through choropleth mapping.
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WAT’s up? Exploring the Impact of Wearable Activity Trackers on Physical Activity and Wellbeing: A Systematic Research ReviewWearable activity trackers (WATs) can facilitate engagement in physical activity. Yet, there may be an additional psychological impact, which can influence their effectiveness. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review was to assess the impact of wrist-based WATs on physical activity and subsequent psychological wellbeing in healthy adults. The review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines and registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF). An initial search was conducted in December 2022 with a follow-up in October 2023. Databases included PsychInfo, PsycArticles, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus. Nine studies were selected for inclusion and reviewed. Most studies comprised white adults with an average age of 21.5 to 49 years. Participants were employed or students with a mostly normal BMI. Changes in self-efficacy for exercise, depressive symptoms, mental health and general wellbeing, quality of life and burnout were evaluated. Half the studies reported a WAT-related increase in physical activity engagement. Four studies assessed self-efficacy for exercise, with half observing an improvement post-intervention. Three studies assessed mental health and depressive symptoms with one observing improvement and two observing no change. The remaining studies included measures of burnout and quality of life, where only burnout scores improved one-month post-intervention. Although the quality of the studies reviewed was acceptable, only 4 included a suitable control/comparison group. Further, the measurement of psychological wellbeing varied considerably. In sum, the results indicate that the effect of WATs on physical activity and subsequent psychological wellbeing is understudied. Further research is required to fully elucidate these relationships.
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Bidirectional Relationships Between Childhood Adversities and Psychosocial Outcomes: A Cross-Lagged Panel Study from Childhood to AdolescenceChildhood adversities have been linked to psychosocial outcomes, but it remains uncertain whether subtypes of adversity exert different effects on outcomes. Research is also needed to explore the dynamic interplay between adversity and psychosocial outcomes from childhood to mid-adolescence. This study aimed to investigate these relationships and their role in shaping adolescent wellbeing. Data were extracted from three timepoints of the UK Household Longitudinal Survey when participants ( = 646) were aged 10-15. Cross-lagged panel models were used to explore the relationship between cumulative adversities, and separately non-household (i.e., bullying victimization and adverse neighborhood) and household (i.e., sibling victimization, quarrelsome relationship with parents, financial struggles, and maternal psychological distress) adversities, and psychosocial outcomes (i.e., internalizing and externalizing problems, delinquency, and life satisfaction). Our results revealed that heightened cumulative adversity predicted psychosocial outcomes from childhood to mid-adolescence. Increased levels of household adversity predicted psychosocial outcomes throughout early to mid-adolescence, while non-household adversity only predicted psychosocial outcomes in early adolescence. Furthermore, worse psychosocial outcomes predicted higher levels of adversities during adolescence, highlighting bidirectionality between adversity and psychosocial outcomes. These findings underscore the varying impacts of adversity subtypes and the mutually reinforcing effects of adversities and psychosocial functioning from childhood to mid-adolescence.
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Methodological and Conceptual Advances in Understanding Psychological Flexibility as a Modifiable Protective Factor for Suicidal Thoughts and BehavioursSuicide is a global public health issue. Cross-nationally, many people experience suicidal thoughts and behaviours (STBs). Much is known about the risk factors of STBs; for example, as depicted by the Integrated Motivational Volitional (IMV) Model. However, modifiable protective factors remain relatively under-researched. Psychological factors which underlie existing intervention packages, such as psychological flexibility. Psychological flexibility is purported to be the therapeutic process of change underlying an existing intervention package – Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Broadly, this PhD explored whether psychological flexibility had a potentially protective role for STBs. Four original studies designed this evidence gap were conducted. A large, three-wave longitudinal survey with adults from the online general population laid the conceptual groundwork for this thesis on proximal risk. Testing the IMV model cross-sectionally and longitudinally using structural equation modelling confirmed that the IMV’s central path was empirically sound. The full model with motivational moderators showed poor model fit, perhaps explainable by methodological and statistical challenges discussed. Psychological flexibility, particularly valued actions and behavioural awareness were moderate-to-strong cross-sectional and longitudinal correlates of proximal risk factors, and possibly volitional moderators. The natural stability of the constructs suggests that experimental, intervention work is needed to fully test the theorised effect of psychological flexibility as a protective factor for proximal risk of STBs. Study 2 examined the acceptability of five values clarification exercises (VCEs) using an online randomised, active-controlled experimental trial. Adults with recent experience of suicidal thoughts provided invaluable open-ended feedback on the acceptability of the VCEs, informing a tailored, single-session VCE. Study 2 also found preliminary evidence that the VCEs improved state value clarity, the therapeutic process of change. Study 3 evaluated the short-term effects of the tailored VCE using 4 a single-case experimental design (SCED) with ecological momentary assessment (EMA) technology. Individual- and group-level analyses suggested largely equivocal results for suicidal thoughts and value clarity/actions. Study 4, an EMA item validation study, confirmed that low convergent validity may explain these equivocal findings. Moreover, participants experienced some degree of momentary reactivity to the EMA item-sets throughout the day, highlighting potential implications for understanding confounding effects in intervention EMA-informed SCED studies. Conceptually, the longitudinal evidence provided throughout this thesis means that we are one step closer towards understanding the protective role of psychological flexibility (in particular, value clarity and action). The acceptability data on the experience of an online, self-guided single-session VCE for adults at-risk of suicide may be particularly relevant for clinicians. Methodologically, the feasibility and measurement challenges discussed throughout this thesis highlight important considerations for future research. Replication is needed prior to scaling up this work. Going forward, researchers are encouraged to work collaboratively with people with lived experience to co-produce effective online values-based interventions.
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Personality in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): Temporal stability and methods of assessmentPersonality is the essence of individuality in animals, affecting individual behaviours, perceptions and lived experiences. Being able to reliably assess personality in animals holds the key to understanding individual differences, and application of this knowledge is paramount in the provision of individual-level management of animals to optimise welfare. A key aspect of the definition of animal personality is ‘consistency over time’. Yet, despite the range of studies assessing elephant personality, there is a lack of consistency within methodologies and personality is usually assessed at a single point in time. Here, we examine personality data from adult members of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) herd at Chester Zoo at five separate time points, across a ten-year period (2013−2023). Data were analysed in terms of the instruments used to measure personality (differences in questions/items across assessments, presentation of the personality assessments, raters), and changes over time in elephant personality assessment scores. Select personality traits were consistent over multiple time points. Inter-rater reliability across personality adjectives is highest when keepers are involved in scale development, reinforcing the importance of collaboration between scientists and animal caregivers in building tools for evidence-based management decisions over the lifetime of animals.
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UK Reproducibility Network Open and Transparent Research Practices Survey DatasetOpenness and transparency in the research process are a prerequisite to the production of high quality research outputs. Efforts to maximise these features have substantially accelerated in recent years, placing open and transparent research practices at the forefront of funding and related priorities, and encouraging investment in resources and infrastructure to enable such practices. Despite these efforts, there has been no systematic documentation of current practices, infrastructure, or training and resources that support open and transparent research in the UK. To address this gap, we developed and conducted the Open and Transparent Research Practices survey, a large-scale audit study completed by research-active staff in UK research institutions to better understand existing practices, needs, support, and barriers faced when implementing open and transparent research. The data presented here capture responses from over 2,500 research-active staff based at 15 institutions affiliated with the UK Reproducibility Network. The data provide a snapshot of open research practices that can be used to identify barriers, training needs, and areas that require greater investments.
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The feasibility and acceptability of an inoculative intervention video for gambling advertising: a focus group study of academics and experts-by-experienceGambling advertising employs a range of persuasive strategies. We therefore aimed to evaluate a counter-advertising intervention video to increase resilience to gambling advertising persuasion. Methods Three in-depth focus groups were conducted, and each group contained a mixture of gambling-related academics (N = 12) and experts with lived experience of gambling-related harm (N = 10). Participants were given access to the intervention video and provided feedback during the focus groups. Qualitative data were audio recorded and thematically analysed by the research team. Results Three main themes were identified. First, participants recommended a shorter video that had a simplified and digestible structure. Second, frequent real-world examples of gambling advertisements within the video were discouraged, and the inclusion of a relatable human voiceover was considered imperative to the receptiveness of the video. Finally, participants deemed it important to deliver psychologically grounded yet jargon-free content via a conversational style. An overall narrative framed by consumer-protection was also preferred in order to increase acceptance of the video content, rather than a more didactic framing. Conclusions Evaluating the acceptability of a counter advertising intervention video provided valuable insight from both an academic and lived-experience perspective. Such insight is instrumental to the meaningful co-design of counter-advertising interventions.
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The measurement of attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence: An overview and recommendationsThe growth in use of Artificial Intelligence is having a major impact on society, with further impacts anticipated in the coming years and decades. There are individual differences in attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence and it is important for scientists and others to be able to measure these. Individual differences in attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence may be associated with other major psychological or circumstantial factors, and understanding these associations is beneficial. In addition, it is important to be able to track attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence over time. For this purpose, scientists have developed psychometric measurement tools to measure attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence. This Chapter provides an overview and evaluation of these tools, with a focus on tools that measure general attitudes towards Artificial Intelligence, and that are quantitative measurements, which can be analysed statistically. Semantic, methodological, and psychometric factors that the user should consider when choosing a suitable tool are discussed. The choice of measurement tool may depend on many researcher-driven considerations, including time, cost, and practical factors, but the quality and validity of the measurement tool should be a major factor in this choice. A scale’s ability to capture important dimensions in the data should also be a key consideration. We recommend that observed ambivalence about AI is best captured with a bi-dimensional AI attitudes scale.
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A Worldwide Test of the Predictive Validity of Ideal Partner Preference-MatchingIdeal partner preferences (i.e., ratings of the desirability of attributes like attractiveness or intelligence) are the source of numerous foundational findings in the interdisciplinary literature on human mating. Recently, research on the predictive validity of ideal partner preference-matching (i.e., do people positively evaluate partners who match versus mismatch their ideals?) has become mired in several problems. First, articles exhibit discrepant analytic and reporting practices. Second, different findings emerge across laboratories worldwide, perhaps because they sample different relationship contexts and/or populations. This registered report—partnered with the Psychological Science Accelerator—uses a highly powered design (N=10,358) across 43 countries and 22 languages to estimate preference-matching effect sizes. The most rigorous tests revealed significant preference-matching effects in the whole sample and for partnered and single participants separately. The “corrected pattern metric” that collapses across 35 traits revealed a zero-order effect of β=.19 and an effect of β=.11 when included alongside a normative preference-matching metric. Specific traits in the “level metric” (interaction) tests revealed very small (average β=.04) effects. Effect sizes were similar for partnered participants who reported ideals before entering a relationship, and there was no consistent evidence that individual differences moderated any effects. Comparisons between stated and revealed preferences shed light on gender differences and similarities: For attractiveness, men’s and (especially) women’s stated preferences underestimated revealed preferences (i.e., they thought attractiveness was less important than it actually was). For earning potential, men’s stated preferences underestimated—and women’s stated preferences overestimated—revealed preferences. Implications for the literature on human mating are discussed.
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Testing the Spillover Effect of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization on Emotionally Abusive and Harsh Parenting Practices: The Application of Propensity Score MatchingPrior research reported a significant association between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and negative parenting, but there was an overreliance on U.S. samples and families from low socioeconomic status backgrounds. Therefore, this quasi-experimental study examined the association between recent IPV victimization and abusive parenting practices in a sample of community-based women from Poland. Participants were mothers of children aged 2 to 5 years ( N = 610) attending an outpatient clinic located in a city in south-eastern Poland. Mothers were asked about their IPV experiences in the past 12 months and were classed as either IPV positive or IPV negative. Outcome measures assessed emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices. All data were collected online. To reduce bias in background characteristics (i.e., age, education, employment status, financial distress, self-esteem, childhood violence history, alcohol problems, current mental distress, social support, exposure to COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors, and child sex), we applied the propensity score matching (PSM) technique. Group differences before and after matching were examined using independent samples t-tests. Prematching analyses revealed that IPV-positive mothers used significantly more emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices than IPV-negative mothers. However, the two samples differed substantially on six background characteristics which are known risk factors for IPV and child maltreatment (financial distress, self-esteem, childhood violence history, current mental distress, social support, and exposure to COVID-19-pandemic-related stressors). PSM was successful in reducing those imbalances. Postmatching group comparisons were statistically nonsignificant for emotionally abusive and harsh parenting, disproving the spillover hypothesis. We conclude that IPV victimization is not related to emotionally abusive and harsh parenting practices when controlling for confounding variables.
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Novel Psychoactive Substance Use and Psychological Trauma: A Multimethodological AnalysisBackground: Authors discuss the connections between novel psychoactive substance (NPS) use and psychological trauma. The transition from classical substances to NPS, a paradigm change, poses a challenge for the treatment systems. Objective: Research evidence suggests difficulties in emotion regulation and trauma-related NPS-use. Authors explore some demographic and psychopathological characteristics related to such findings and examine the connections between emotion regulation deficiency and the choice of substance. Method: This study uses a methodological triangulation of a biologically identified sample to confirm NPS use, a survey method to describe users’ socioeconomic characteristics, and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) subscales to study dysfunctions in emotion regulation. Results: Participants (77 patients) were mainly polydrug users. The transgenerational transfer of substance use was a salient feature, but material deprivation was not characteristic of the entire sample. NPS use was not connected to certain psychopathological characteristics the way classical substance use was. More than half of the respondents had elevated scores on MMPI-2 Demoralization (RCd) and Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7) scales. Nearly half of them also scored high on Neuroticism/Negative Emotionality (NEGE). Conclusions: Results suggest that NPS use in the context of polydrug use is connected to psychological trauma and emotion regulation deficiency, but the MMPI-2 scales to assess emotional dysfunctions are not connected to a particular type of NPS.
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Understanding barriers and facilitators to palliative and end-of-life care research: a mixed method study of generalist and specialist health, social care, and research professionalsBackground: Palliative care provision should be driven by high quality research evidence. However, there are barriers to conducting research. Most research attention focuses on potential patient barriers; staff and organisational issues that affect research involvement are underexplored. The aim of this research is to understand professional and organisational facilitators and barriers to conducting palliative care research. Methods: A mixed methods study, using an open cross-sectional online survey, followed by working groups using nominal group techniques. Participants were professionals interested in palliative care research, working as generalist/specialist palliative care providers, or palliative care research staff across areas of North West England. Recruitment was via local health organisations, personal networks, and social media in 2022. Data were examined using descriptive statistics and content analysis. Results: Participants (survey n = 293, working groups n = 20) were mainly from clinical settings (71%) with 45% nurses and 45% working more than 10 years in palliative care. 75% were not active in research but 73% indicated a desire to increase research involvement. Key barriers included lack of organisational research culture and capacity (including prioritisation and available time); research knowledge (including skills/expertise and funding opportunities); research infrastructure (including collaborative opportunities across multiple organisations and governance challenges); and patient and public perceptions of research (including vulnerabilities and burdens). Key facilitators included dedicated research staff, and active research groups, collaborations, and networking opportunities. Conclusions: Professionals working in palliative care are keen to be research active, but lack time, skills, and support to build research capabilities and collaborations. A shift in organisational culture is needed to enhance palliative care research capacity and collaborative opportunities across clinical and research settings.
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The Potential of Preregistration in Psychology: Assessing Preregistration Producibility and Preregistration-Study ConsistencyStudy preregistration has become increasingly popular in psychology, but its potential to restrict researcher degrees of freedom has not yet been empirically verified. We used an extensive protocol to assess the producibility (i.e., the degree to which a study can be properly conducted based on the available information) of preregistrations and the consistency between preregistrations and their corresponding papers for 300 psychology studies. We found that preregistrations often lack methodological details and that undisclosed deviations from preregistered plans are frequent. These results highlight that biases due to researcher degrees of freedom remain possible in many preregistered studies. More comprehensive registration templates typically yielded more producible preregistrations. We did not find that the producibility and consistency of preregistrations differed over time or between original and replication studies. Furthermore, we found that operationalizations of variables were generally preregistered more producible and consistently than other study parts. Inconsistencies between preregistrations and published studies were mainly encountered for data collection procedures, statistical models, and exclusion criteria. Our results indicate that, to unlock the full potential of preregistration, researchers in psychology should aim to write more producible preregistrations, adhere to these preregistrations more faithfully, and more transparently report any deviations from their preregistrations. This could be facilitated by training and education to improve preregistration skills, as well as the development of more comprehensive templates.
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‘Ripple Effects’ of Urban Environmental Characteristics on Cognitive Performance in Eurasian Red SquirrelsUrban areas are expanding exponentially, leading more species of wildlife living in urban environments. Urban environmental characteristics, such as human disturbance, induce stress for many wildlife and have been shown to affect some cognitive traits, such as innovative problem-solving performance. However, because different cognitive traits have common cognitive processes, it is possible that urban environmental characteristics may directly and indirectly affect related cognitive traits (the ripple effect hypothesis). We tested the ripple effect hypothesis in urban Eurasian red squirrels residing in 11 urban areas that had different urban environmental characteristics (direct human disturbance, indirect human disturbance, areas of green coverage, and squirrel population size). These squirrels were innovators who had previously repeatedly solved a food-extraction task (the original task). Here, we examined whether and how urban environmental characteristics would directly and indirectly influence performance in two related cognitive traits, generalisation and (long-term) memory. The generalisation task required the innovators to apply the learned successful solutions when solving a similar but novel problem. The memory task required them to recall the learned solution of the original task after an extended period of time. Some of the selected urban environmental characteristics directly influenced the task performance, both at the population level (site) and at individual levels. Urban environmental characteristics, such as increased direct and indirect human disturbance, decreased the proportion of success in solving the generalisation task or the memory task at the population (site) level. Increased direct human disturbance and less green coverage increased the solving efficiency at individual levels. We also found an indirect effect in one of the urban environmental characteristics, indirect human disturbance, in the generalisation task, but not the memory task. Such an effect was only seen at the individual level but not at the population level; indirect human disturbance decreased the first original latency, which then decreased the generalisation latency across successes. Our results partially support the ripple effect hypothesis, suggesting that urban environmental characteristics are stressors for squirrels and have a greater impact on shaping cognitive performance than previously shown. Together, these results provide a better understanding of cognitive traits that support wildlife in adapting to urban environments.
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The Sport and Exercise Psychology Practitioner’s Contribution to Service Delivery OutcomesThe purpose of this article is to review research related to the practitioner’s contribution to effective service delivery. Specifically, we answer five questions. First, what are sport and exercise psychology practitioners striving to achieve? Second, what is expertise in applied sport and exercise psychology? Third, what are characteristics of effective practitioners? Fourth, how can practitioners develop their expertise over time? Fifth, how do practitioners manage the athlete variables and contextual factors that influence service delivery? Offering answers to these questions allows us to identify practical implications to inform practitioner training and development and to suggest avenues to expand knowledge. Results from the review suggest that practitioners who help athletes effectively possess facilitative interpersonal skills, experience professional self-doubt, engage in judicious decision making, exercise organizational savviness, demonstrate multicultural humility, and willingly engage in skill development. Based on current knowledge, future research directions include examining the magnitude of practitioner attributes on service delivery outcomes. Applied implications for professional development include the use of deliberate practice to enhance skill learning, along with using supervision and feedback.
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Detecting DeceptionThis chapter presents an overview of research on how we may be able to detect deception. Key ideas, findings, and challenges are outlined, and contexts in which the assessment of credibility may be relevant are considered. Four major approaches to detecting deception are discussed and evaluated; observing non-verbal behaviour, measuring physiological responses, measuring neural activity, and analysing verbal accounts. The focus is directed at approaches that have the greatest utility in an applied policing context and in investigative interviewing. The chapter also explores strategies to elicit cues to deception and maximise the differences between liars and truth-tellers, and dispels some common misconceptions.
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White paper on forensic child interviewing: research-based recommendations by the European Association of Psychology and LawThis white paper consists of evidence-based recommendations for conducting forensic interviews with children. The recommendations are jointly drafted by researchers in child interviewing active within the European Association of Psychology and Law and are focused on cases in which children are interviewed in forensic settings, in particular within investigations of child sexual and/or physical abuse. One particular purpose of the white paper is to assist the growing Barnahus movement in Europe to develop investigative practise that is science-based. The key recommendations entail the expertise required by interviewers, how interviews should be conducted and how interviewers should be trained. Interviewers are advised to use evidence-based interview protocols, engage in hypothesis-testing and record their interviews. The need to prepare the interview well and making efforts to familiarise the child with the interview situation and create rapport as well as acknowledging cultural factors and the possible need for interpretation is underscored, and a recommendation is made not to rely on dolls, body diagrams and the interpretation of drawings in the interviews. Online child interviewing is noted as showing promising results, but more research is warranted before conclusive recommendations can be made. Interviewers should receive specialised training and continuous feedback on their interviews.
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Identification and support of autistic individuals within the UK Criminal Justice System: a practical approach based upon professional consensus with input from lived experienceBackground: Autism spectrum disorder (hereafter referred to as autism) is characterised by difficulties with (i) social communication, social interaction, and (ii) restricted and repetitive interests and behaviours. Estimates of autism prevalence within the criminal justice system (CJS) vary considerably, but there is evidence to suggest that the condition can be missed or misidentified within this population. Autism has implications for an individual’s journey through the CJS, from police questioning and engagement in court proceedings through to risk assessment, formulation, therapeutic approaches, engagement with support services, and long-term social and legal outcomes. Methods: This consensus based on professional opinion with input from lived experience aims to provide general principles for consideration by United Kingdom (UK) CJS personnel when working with autistic individuals, focusing on autistic offenders and those suspected of offences. Principles may be transferable to countries beyond the UK. Multidisciplinary professionals and two service users were approached for their input to address the effective identification and support strategies for autistic individuals within the CJS. Results: The authors provide a consensus statement including recommendations on the general principles of effective identification, and support strategies for autistic individuals across different levels of the CJS. Conclusion: Greater attention needs to be given to this population as they navigate the CJS.